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Research map

Eight research areas with the receptors and pathways studied in the literature. An overview of published work, not usage advice.

Choose an area on the figure or in the list. You will see which receptors and signaling pathways are studied there in published research, together with the sources.

Brain and pituitary

Preclinical research looks at neuropeptides that influence signaling pathways in the central nervous system. This involves studies in cell culture and animal models on neurotrophic factors, ion channels, and sleep regulation. The receptors in the hypothalamus and pituitary that regulate the release of growth hormone also belong to this area.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

BDNF and TrkB
In rat models, the expression of BDNF and its receptor TrkB has been measured after administration of Semax, an analog of ACTH(4-10).
TREK-1 potassium channel
Shortened spadin analogs such as PE-22-28 inhibit this channel in vitro.
Sleep EEG
DSIP was isolated in 1977 in research on delta-wave activity in the EEG.
OXTR and MC4R
The oxytocin receptor and the melanocortin-4 receptor are G protein-coupled receptors that occur in the hypothalamus, among other regions.
GHRH receptor
Target of GHRH analogs such as CJC-1295 and tesamorelin.
Ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a)
Ipamorelin has been described as a selective agonist of this receptor.
IGF-1 receptor
IGF-1 LR3 is an analog of IGF-1 with reduced binding to IGF-binding proteins.
Kisspeptin receptor (KISS1R)
Studied in relation to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Dolotov OV, et al. Semax, an analog of ACTH(4-10) with cognitive effects, regulates BDNF and trkB expression in the rat hippocampus. Brain Res. 2006;1117(1):54-60.
  2. Djillani A, et al. Shortened spadin analogs display better TREK-1 inhibition, in vivo stability and antidepressant activity. Front Pharmacol. 2017;8:643.
  3. Schoenenberger GA, Monnier M. Characterization of a delta-electroencephalogram (-sleep)-inducing peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1977;74(3):1282-1286.
  4. Kojima M, et al. Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature. 1999;402(6762):656-660.
  5. Raun K, et al. Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;139(5):552-561.
  6. Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805.

Heart and blood vessels

Research looks at peptides in models of the heart and the vessel wall: the formation of new blood vessels, the migration of cells, and the energy metabolism of heart muscle cells. The published work is predominantly preclinical.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

Neovascularization
Thymosin β4 has been studied in mouse models in relation to the mobilization of progenitor cells from the epicardium and the formation of new vessels.
Cell migration in the heart
In cell culture and in animal models, researchers have looked at the effect of thymosin β4 on the migration and survival of heart cells.
Heart muscle mitochondria
Cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane is the target of SS-31 in studies with heart muscle cells.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Bock-Marquette I, et al. Thymosin β4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair. Nature. 2004;432(7016):466-472.
  2. Smart N, et al. Thymosin β4 induces adult epicardial progenitor mobilization and neovascularization. Nature. 2007;445(7124):177-182.
  3. Szeto HH. First-in-class cardiolipin-protective compound as a therapeutic agent to restore mitochondrial bioenergetics. Br J Pharmacol. 2014;171(8):2029-2050.

Immune system

Research looks at peptides involved in innate and adaptive immunity. Thymosin α1 was originally isolated from thymus tissue. LL-37 is the only cathelicidin that occurs in humans.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

Toll-like receptors
Reported target of thymosin α1 on dendritic cells.
Cathelicidin LL-37
Antimicrobial peptide that is also studied as a signaling molecule.
α-MSH fragment KPV
Studied in intestinal epithelial models in relation to NF-κB signaling.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. King R, Tuthill C. Immune modulation with thymosin alpha 1 treatment. Vitam Horm. 2016;102:151-178.
  2. Vandamme D, et al. A comprehensive summary of LL-37, the factotum human cathelicidin peptide. Cell Immunol. 2012;280(1):22-35.

Stomach, pancreas, and adipose tissue

Research looks at incretin and amylin receptors. These are involved in glucose regulation, gastric emptying, and appetite signals. Retatrutide is an agonist of three receptors at once; cagrilintide is a long-acting amylin analog.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors
Retatrutide (LY3437943) activates all three receptors.
Amylin and calcitonin receptors
Target of cagrilintide.
Adipose tissue
AOD-9604 is a modified fragment of growth hormone (amino acids 177–191) that has been studied in mouse models in relation to fat metabolism.
NNMT
5-Amino-1MQ inhibits the enzyme nicotinamide N-methyltransferase in vitro.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP, and GLP-1 receptor agonist for glycemic control and weight loss: from discovery to clinical proof of concept. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247.
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-hormone-receptor agonist retatrutide for obesity: a phase 2 trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526.
  3. Lau DCW, et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10317):2160-2172.

Gut and gut-brain axis

Research looks at peptides that occur in the gastrointestinal tract or are absorbed there. BPC-157 is derived from a protein in gastric juice. The tripeptide KPV is taken up into the intestinal epithelium via the transporter PepT1.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

Gut-brain axis
BPC-157 has been studied in animal models in relation to signaling between the gut and the nervous system.
PepT1 transporter
Mediates the uptake of KPV into intestinal epithelial cells.
Incretin hormones
GLP-1 and GIP are released by cells in the intestinal wall.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Brain-gut axis and pentadecapeptide BPC 157: theoretical and practical implications. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14(8):857-865.
  2. Dalmasso G, et al. PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2008;134(1):166-178.

Skin and hair

Research looks at peptides in models of skin structure and pigmentation. GHK-Cu is a copper-binding tripeptide that occurs naturally in plasma. Melanocortin analogs bind to the MC1 receptor on melanocytes.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

Extracellular matrix
GHK-Cu has been studied in relation to gene expression involved in collagen and matrix formation.
Melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R)
Target of α-MSH analogs such as melanotan I and II.
SNARE complex
Acetyl-octapeptide-3 (Snap-8) is an extended variant of acetyl-hexapeptide-3.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide in the light of the new gene data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987.
  2. Hadley ME, Dorr RT. Melanocortin peptide therapeutics: historical milestones, clinical studies and commercialization. Peptides. 2006;27(4):921-930.
  3. Blanes-Mira C, et al. A synthetic hexapeptide (Argireline) with antiwrinkle activity. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2002;24(5):303-310.

Muscles, tendons, and repair

Research looks at peptides in models of tissue repair: the migration of fibroblasts, the formation of blood vessels, and the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. This research takes place in cell culture and in animal models.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

Actin binding
Thymosin β4 binds G-actin. TB-500 contains the actin-binding motif LKKTETQ.
Tendon fibroblasts
BPC-157 has been studied in vitro in relation to cell migration and cell survival.
ERR-α, -β, and -γ
SLU-PP-332 is a synthetic agonist of these nuclear receptors in skeletal muscle.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Kleinman HK. Thymosin β4: actin-sequestering protein moonlights to repair injured tissues. Trends Mol Med. 2005;11(9):421-429.
  2. Chang CH, et al. The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration. J Appl Physiol. 2011;110(3):774-780.
  3. Billon C, et al. Synthetic ERRα/β/γ agonist induces an ERRα-dependent acute aerobic exercise response and enhances exercise capacity. ACS Chem Biol. 2023;18(4):756-771.

Cells and mitochondria

Research looks at compounds that act on the energy metabolism of the cell. MOTS-c is encoded by mitochondrial DNA. SS-31 binds to cardiolipin in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

Receptors and pathways in the literature

Cardiolipin
SS-31 (elamipretide) binds this phospholipid in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
AMPK
MOTS-c has been studied in mouse models in relation to metabolic regulation via the folate cycle and AMPK.
NAD+ and sirtuins
NAD+ is a coenzyme in redox reactions and a substrate of sirtuins and PARP enzymes.
Telomerase
Epithalon has been studied in cell culture in relation to telomerase activity.

Products in this area

Listed here by shop category, not because they were used in these studies. Prices incl. VAT.

Literature
  1. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454.
  2. Szeto HH. First-in-class cardiolipin-protective compound as a therapeutic agent to restore mitochondrial bioenergetics. Br J Pharmacol. 2014;171(8):2029-2050.
  3. Verdin E. NAD+ in aging, metabolism, and neurodegeneration. Science. 2015;350(6265):1208-1213.
  4. Khavinson VKh, Bondarev IE, Butyugov AA. Epithalon peptide induces telomerase activity and telomere elongation in human somatic cells. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2003;135(6):590-592.

This map summarizes published research. It is not usage advice and says nothing about effects in humans. All products are for laboratory research use only.

How this map was made

The map summarizes scientific publications. Each area lists the papers on which its text is based. Much of this research is preclinical: it was carried out in cell culture or in animal models. Findings from such models do not tell you how a substance behaves in humans.

The map is intended as a guide to the literature. It contains no information on administration, dosing, or use, and we do not provide that information on request either. All PulseChem products are for laboratory research use only. See the RUO policy.

In the lab

This is how solutions are prepared in the lab.

  1. Disinfect. The stoppers of both vials are wiped with an alcohol swab.
  2. Draw up. The needle passes through the stopper of the bacteriostatic water and the plunger draws up liquid.
  3. Transfer. The liquid runs down the inside wall of the vial with powder.
  4. Mix. The vial is gently swirled until the solution is clear.
  5. Done. The solution is ready for use in research.
  6. Take sample. A new needle passes through the stopper and the plunger draws up part of the solution.
  7. Sample vial. The solution runs through the septum of the screw cap into a sample vial.
  8. Analyze. The sample vial goes into the autosampler; the instrument measures the solution in vitro.

For laboratory research use only (in vitro). Not for human or animal use.